Literary Theory

Created as a graduate project for ENGL 565 - Critical Approaches to Literature; also for additional use as an instructional tool for a 12th grade unit on Shakespeare's Hamlet.

Professor: Dr. Mary Leen.

Course Term: Summer 2017.

Email: sylvesterm@wnmu.edu
Website: https://www.linkedin.com/in/matthew-sylvester-11520499

According to Terry Eagleton (Literary Theory An Introduction), literature is perhaps best viewed beyond an "objective" categorization.

Eagleton writes:

"If it will not do to see literature as an 'objective', descriptive category, neither will it do to say that literature is just what people whimsically choose to call literature. For there is nothing at all whimsical about such kinds of value judgements: they have their roots in deeper structures of belief which are as apparently unshakeable as the Empire State building. What we have uncovered so far, then, is not only that literature does not exists in the sense that insects do, and that the value-judgements by which it is constituted are historically variable, but that these value-judgements themselves have a close relation to social ideologies" (Eagleton 14).

Thus, when we think of literature we have to consider the "ideologies" at play which help give meaning and significance to the texts. It is in the field of "Literary Theory" where these "deeper structures" are explored.

The Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab) describes literary theory as follows:

"A very basic way of thinking about literary theory is that these ideas act as different lenses critics use to view and talk about art, literature, and even culture. These different lenses allow critics to consider works of art based on certain assumptions within that school of theory. The different lenses also allow critics to focus on particular aspects of a work they consider important."

OWL Purdue also provides a helpful timeline for Literary Criticism's development:

Note: This can be beneficial when considering how theories grew out of each other; how the ideas of one theory gave rise to another.

• Moral Criticism, Dramatic Construction (~360 BC-present)
• Formalism, New Criticism, Neo-Aristotelian Criticism (1930s-present)
• Psychoanalytic Criticism, Jungian Criticism(1930s-present)
• Marxist Criticism (1930s-present)
• Reader-Response Criticism (1960s-present)
• Structuralism/Semiotics (1920s-present)
• Post-Structuralism/Deconstruction (1966-present)
• New Historicism/Cultural Studies (1980s-present)
• Post-Colonial Criticism (1990s-present)
• Feminist Criticism (1960s-present)
• Gender/Queer Studies (1970s-present)
• Critical Race Theory (1970s-present)

In the below video, Yale professor Paul Fry, provides a good jumping off point for exploring literary theory. Start here for an overview of essential questions: "What is Literature?" and "What is Literary Theory?".

According to Michael Delahoyde, Clinical Associate Professor of English at Washington State University, the following tendencies should be considered as underlying the major approaches, or schools of thought, of literary critics:

Theoretical:

proposes a theory of literature and general principles as to how to approach it; criteria for evaluation emerge.

Practical / Applied:

discusses particular works and authors; the theoretical principles are implicit within the analysis or interpretation.

Impressionistic:

"appreciates" the responses evoked by works of literature with "oohs and ahhs" regarding "the soul" and declarations of "masterpieces."

Judicial:

attempts to analyze and explain those effects through the basic forms of "dissection": subject, style, organization, techniques.

Mimetic:

seeks to evaluate literature as an imitation or representation of life.

Pragmatic:

decides how well a work achieves its aims due to the author's strategies.

Expressive:

gushes about how well an author expressed or conveyed him or herself, his or her visions and feelings.

Textual:

aims to establish an accurate uncorrupted original text identical with what the author intended. This may involve collating manuscripts and printed versions, deciding on the validity of rediscovered versions or chapters, deciphering damaged manuscripts and illegible handwriting, etc.

Below is an overview of major schools of literary criticism/theory. Feel free to peruse these in an order, however, they are listed relative to the timeline provided by OWL Purdue. Important: (1) Consider which theoretical lens you might examine Shakespeare's Hamlet from; and (2) develop a list of at least 5 questions regarding the theories in relation to Hamlet. See exit ticket at the bottom.

Overview:

Hermeneutics:

From Terry Eagleton:

• "the word 'hermeneutic' means the science or art of interpretation...The word 'hermeneutics' was originally confined to the interpretation of sacred scripture; but during the nineteenth century [1800s] it broadened its scope to encompass the problem of textual interpretation as a whole (Eagleton 57).

From Kristi Siegel:

• "Hermeneutics sees interpretation as a circular process whereby valid interpretation can be achieved by a sustained, mutually qualifying interplay between our progressive sense of the whole and our retrospective understanding of its component parts" (Siegel).
• "Two dominant theories that emerged from Wilhelm Dilthey's original premise were that of E. D. Hirsch who, in accord with Dilthey, felt a valid interpretation was possible by uncovering the work's authorial intent (though informed by historical and cultural determinants), and in contrast, that of Martin Heidegger (HIGH-deg-er) who argued that a reader must experience the "inner life" of a text in order to understand it at all. The reader's "being-in-the-world"...is fraught with difficulties since both the reader and the text exist in a temporal and fluid state. For Heidegger or Hans Georg Gadamer (GAH-de-mer), then, a valid interpretation may become irrecoverable and will always be relative" (Siegel).

Phenomenology:

From Kristi Siegel:

• "Phenomenology is a philosophical method, first developed by Edmund Husserl (HUHSS-erel), that proposed "phenomenological reduction" so that everything not "immanent" to consciousness must be excluded; all realities must be treated as pure "phenomena" and this is the only absolute data from which we can begin. Husserl viewed consciousness always as intentional and that the act of consciousness, the thinking subject and the object it "intends," are inseparable. Art is not a means of securing pleasure, but a revelation of being. The work is the phenomenon by which we come to know the world (Eagleton, p. 54; Abrams, p. 133, Guerin, p. 263)" (Siegel).

Major Theorists:

• E. D. Hirsch (1928-)
  
• Wilhelm Dilthe (1833-1911)

• Edmund Husserl (1859-1938)

Relevant Works:

• The Aims of Interpretation (1978)
• The Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenological Philosophy (1936)
• Being and Time (1927)
• Speech and Phenomena, and Other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs (1967)
• The Space of Literature

Overview:

Structuralism
From Kristi Siegel:

• "Structuralism is a way of thinking about the world which is predominantly concerned with the perceptions and description of structures. At its simplest, structuralism claims that the nature of every element in any given situation has no significance by itself, and in fact is determined by all the other elements involved in that situation. The full significance of any entity cannot be perceived unless and until it is integrated into the structure of which it forms a part (Hawkes, p. 11). Structuralists believe that all human activity is constructed, not natural or "essential." Consequently, it is the systems of organization that are important (what we do is always a matter of selection within a given construct). By this formulation, "any activity, from the actions of a narrative to not eating one's peas with a knife, takes place within a system of differences and has meaning only in its relation to other possible activities within that system, not to some meaning that emanates from nature or the divine (Childers & Hentzi, p. 286.)" (Siegel).

Semiotics
From Kristi Siegel:

• "Semiotics, simply put, is the science of signs. Semiology proposes that a great diversity of our human action and productions--our bodily postures and gestures, the the social rituals we perform, the clothes we wear, the meals we serve, the buildings we inhabit--all convey "shared" meanings to members of a particular culture, and so can be analyzed as signs which function in diverse kinds of signifying systems. Linguistics (the study of verbal signs and structures) is only one branch of semiotics but supplies the basic methods and terms which are used in the study of all other social sign systems (Abrams, p. 170)" (Siegel).
  

Major Theorists:

• Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-2009)
• Roman Jakobson (1896-1982)
• Roland Barthes (1915-1980)
• Gerard Genette (1930-)
• Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
• Louis Althusser (1918-1990)
• Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
  
• Umberto Eco (1932-2016)

Relevant Works:

• Elements of Semiology (1972)
  

• A Theory of Semiotics (1978)
• Narrative Discourse (1980)
• The Raw and the Cooked (1964)

Overview:

From Kristi Siegel:

• "A literary movement that started in the late 1920s and 1930s and originated in reaction to traditional criticism that new critics saw as largely concerned with matters extraneous to the text, e.g., with the biography or psychology of the author or the work's relationship to literary history. New Criticism proposed that a work of literary art should be regarded as autonomous, and so should not be judged by reference to considerations beyond itself. A poem consists less of a series of referential and verifiable statements about the 'real' world beyond it, than of the presentation and sophisticated organization of a set of complex experiences in a verbal form (Hawkes, pp. 150-151)" (Siegel)

From Michael Delahoyde:

• "New Criticism emphasizes explication, or "close reading," of "the work itself." It rejects old historicism's attention to biographical and sociological matters. Instead, the objective determination as to "how a piece works" can be found through close focus and analysis, rather than through extraneous and erudite special knowledge. It has long been the pervasive and standard approach to literature in college and high school curricula.
  
• New Criticism, incorporating Formalism, examines the relationships between a text's ideas and its form, between what a text says and the way it says it. New Critics "may find tension, irony, or paradox in this relation, but they usually resolve it into unity and coherence of meaning" (Biddle 100). New Criticism attempts to be a science of literature, with a technical vocabulary, some of which we all had to learn in junior high school English classes (third-person, denoument, etc.). Working with patterns of sound, imagery, narrative structure, point of view, and other techniques discernible on close reading of the text, they seek to determine the function and appropriateness of these to the self-contained work.
• To do New Critical reading, ask yourself, "How does this piece work?" Look for complexities in the text: paradoxes, ironies, ambiguities. Find a unifying idea or theme which resolves these tensions" (Delahoyde).
  

Major Theorists:

• I. A. Richards (1893-1979)
• T. S. Eliot (1888-1965)
• William Empson (1906-1984)
• F. R. Leavis (1895-1978)
• Cleanth Brooks (1906-1994)
• David Daiches (1912-2005)
• Murray Krieger (1923-2000)
• John Crowe Ransom (1888-1974)
• Allen Tate (1899-1979)
• Robert Penn Warren (1905-1989)

Relevant Works:

• The Well-Wrought Urn (1947)
• Understanding Poetry (1938)
• Seven Types of Ambiguity (1955)
• The New Criticism (1941)
• Practical Criticism (1964)

Overview:

From Kristi Siegel:

• "The application of specific psychological principles (particularly those of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan [zhawk lawk-KAWN]) to the study of literature. Psychoanalytic criticism may focus on the writer's psyche, the study of the creative process, the study of psychological types and principles present within works of literature, or the effects of literature upon its readers (Wellek and Warren, p. 81). In addition to Freud and Lacan, major figures include Shoshona Felman, Jane Gallop, Norman Holland, George Klein, Elizabeth Wright, Frederick Hoffman, and, Simon Lesser " (Siegel).
  

From Michael Delahoyde:

• "Psychoanalytic criticism adopts the methods of "reading" employed by Freud and later theorists to interpret texts. It argues that literary texts, like dreams, express the secret unconscious desires and anxieties of the author, that a literary work is a manifestation of the author's own neuroses. One may psychoanalyze a particular character within a literary work, but it is usually assumed that all such characters are projections of the author's psyche.
  
• One interesting facet of this approach is that it validates the importance of literature, as it is built on a literary key for the decoding. Freud himself wrote, "The dream-thoughts which we first come across as we proceed with our analysis often strike us by the unusual form in which they are expressed; they are not clothed in the prosaic language usually employed by our thoughts, but are on the contrary represented symbolically by means of similes and metaphors, in images resembling those of poetic speech" (26).
  
• Like psychoanalysis itself, this critical endeavor seeks evidence of unresolved emotions, psychological conflicts, guilts, ambivalences, and so forth within what may well be a disunified literary work. The author's own childhood traumas, family life, sexual conflicts, fixations, and such will be traceable within the behavior of the characters in the literary work. But psychological material will be expressed indirectly, disguised, or encoded (as in dreams) through principles such as "symbolism" (the repressed object represented in disguise), "condensation" (several thoughts or persons represented in a single image), and "displacement" (anxiety located onto another image by means of association).
  
• Despite the importance of the author here, psychoanalytic criticism is similar to New Criticism in not concerning itself with "what the author intended." But what the author never intended (that is, repressed) is sought. The unconscious material has been distorted by the censoring conscious mind.
  
• Psychoanalytic critics will ask such questions as, "What is Hamlet's problem?" or "Why can't Brontë seem to portray any positive mother figures?" (Delahoyde).
  

Major Theorists:

• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
  
• Jacques Lacan (1901-1981)

Relevant Works:

The Interpretation of Dreams (1899)

Ecrits: A Selection (1966)

Overview:

From Kristi Siegel:

• "A sociological approach to literature that viewed works of literature or art as the products of historical forces that can be analyzed by looking at the material conditions in which they were formed. In Marxist ideology, what we often classify as a world view (such as the Victorian age) is actually the articulations of the dominant class. Marxism generally focuses on the clash between the dominant and repressed classes in any given age and also may encourage art to imitate what is often termed an "objective" reality. Contemporary Marxism is much broader in its focus, and views art as simultaneously reflective and autonomous to the age in which it was produced. The Frankfurt School is also associated with Marxism (Abrams, p. 178, Childers and Hentzi, pp. 175-179)" (Siegel).
  

Major Theorists:

• Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
  
• Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
• Fredric Jameson (1934-)
• Raymond Williams (1921-1988)
• Louis Althusser (1918-1990)
• Walter Benjamin (1892-1940)
• Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937)
• Georg Lukacs (1885-1971)
• Theordor Adorno (1903-1969)

Relevant Works:

• The Communist Manifesto (1848)
• Criticism and Ideology (1978)
• Marxism and Form: Twentieth-Century Dialectical Theories of Literature (1971)
  
• Marxism and Literature (1977)

Overview:

From Kristi Siegel:

• "Reader-response theory may be traced initially to theorists such as I. A. Richards (The Principles of Literary Criticism, Practical Criticism and How to Read a Page) or Louise Rosenblatt (Literature as Exploration or The Reader, the Text, the Poem). For Rosenblatt and Richards the idea of a "correct" reading--though difficult to attain--was always the goal of the "educated" reader (armed, of course, with appropriate aesthetic apparatus). For Stanley Fish(Is There a Text in this Class?, Surprised by Sin: The Reader in "Paradise Lost" and Self-Consuming Artifacts: The Experience of the Seventeenth-Century Reader), the reader's ability to understand a text is also subject a reader's particular "interpretive community." To simplify, a reader brings certain assumptions to a text based on the interpretive strategies he/she has learned in a particular interpretive community. For Fish, the interpretive community serves somewhat to "police" readings and thus prohibit outlandish interpretations. In contrast Wolfgang Iser argued that the reading process is always subjective. In The Implied Reader, Iser sees reading as a dialectical process between the reader and text. For Hans-Robert Jauss, however (Toward an Aesthetic of Reception, and Aesthetic Experience and Literary Hermeneutics), a reader's aesthetic experience is always bound by time and historical determinants" (Siegel).

From Michael Delahoyde:

• "Reader-Response criticism is not a subjective, impressionistic free-for-all, nor a legitimizing of all half-baked, arbitrary, personal comments on literary works. Instead, it is a school of criticism which emerged in the 1970s, focused on finding meaning in the act of reading itself and examining the ways individual readers or communities of readers experience texts. These critics raise theoretical questions regarding how the reader joins with the author "to help the text mean." They determine what kind of reader or what community of readers the work implies and helps to create. They also may examine the significance of the series of interpretations the reader undergoes in the reading process.
  
• Like New Critics, reader-response critics focus on what texts do; but instead of regarding texts as self-contained entities, reader-response criticism plunges into what the New Critics called the affective fallacy: what do texts do in the minds of the readers? In fact, a text can exist only as activated by the mind of the reader. Thus, where formalists saw texts as spacial, reader-response critics view them as temporal phenomena. And, as Stanley Fish states, "It is not that the presence of poetic qualities compels a certain kind of attention but that the paying of a certain kind of attention results in the emergence of poetic qualities. . . . Interpretation is not the art of construing but the art of constructing. Interpreters do not decode poems; they make them" (326-327)" (Delahoyde).
  

Major Theorists:

• I. A. Richards (1893-1979)
  
• Louise Rosenblatt (1904-2005)
  
• Wolfgang Iser (1926-2007)

Relevant Works:

• A Map of Misreading (1975)
• The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (1974)
• Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgement (1929)
• The Role of the Reader (1979)
• Reading and Feelings: An Introduction to Subjective Criticism (1978)

Overview:

From Kristi Siegel:

• "Post-Structuralism (which is often used synonymously with Deconstruction or Postmodernism) is a reaction to structuralism and works against seeing language as a stable, closed system. "It is a shift from seeing the poem or novel as a closed entity, equipped with definite meanings which it is the critic's task to decipher, to seeing literature as irreducibly plural, an endless play of signifiers which can never be finally nailed down to a single center, essence, or meaning" (Eagleton 120 - see reference below under "General References"). Jacques Derrida's (dair-ree-DAH) paper on "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences" (delivered in 1966) proved particularly influential in the creation of post-structuralism. Derrida argued against, in essence, the notion of a knowable center (the Western ideal of logocentrism), a structure that could organize the differential play of language or thought but somehow remain immune to the same "play" it depicts (Abrams, 258-9). Derrida's critique of structuralism also heralded the advent of deconstruction that--like post-structuralism--critiques the notion of "origin" built into structuralism. In negative terms, deconstruction--particularly as articulated by Derrida--has often come to be interpreted as "anything goes" since nothing has any real meaning or truth. More positively, it may posited that Derrida, like Paul de Man (de-MAHN) and other post-structuralists, really asks for rigor, that is, a type of interpretation that is constantly and ruthlessly self-conscious and on guard. Similarly, Christopher Norris (in "What's Wrong with Postmodernism?") launches a cogent argument against simplistic attacks of Derrida's theories:
• On this question [the tendency of critics to read deconstruction "as a species of all-licensing sophistical 'freeplay'"), as on so many others, the issue has been obscured by a failure to grasp Derrida's point when he identifies those problematic factors in language (catachreses, slippages between 'literal' and 'figural' sense, subliminal metaphors mistaken for determinate concepts) whose effect--as in Husserl--is to complicate the passage from what the text manifestly means to say to what it actually says when read with an eye to its latent or covert signifying structures. This 'free-play' has nothing whatsoever to do with that notion of an out-and-out hermeneutic license which would finally come down to a series of slogans like "all reading is misreading," "all interpretation is misinterpretation," etc. If Derrida's texts have been read that way--most often by literary critics in quest of more adventurous hermeneutic models--this is just one sign of the widespread deformation professionelle that has attended the advent of deconstruction as a new arrival on the US academic scene (151)" (Siegel).

Major Theorists:

• Jacques Derrida (1930-2004)
• Paul de Man (1919-1983)
• Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
• Roland Barthes (1915-1980)
• Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007)
• Helen Cixous (1937-)
• Barbara Johnson (1947-2009)
  
• Jacques Lacan (1901-1981)

Relevant Works:

• Deconstruction and Criticism (1979)
• Allegories of Reading: Figural Language in Rosseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust and Blindness and Insight (1982).
• The Foucault Reader (1984)
• Saving the Text: Literature/Derrida/Philosophy (1981)
• Basic Writings

Overview:

From Kristi Siegel:

• "New Historicism (sometimes referred to as Cultural Poetics) emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, largely in reaction to the lingering effects of New Criticism and its ahistorical approach. "New" Historicism's adjectival emphasis highlights its opposition to the old historical-biographical criticism prevalent before the advent of New Criticism. In the earlier historical-biographical criticism, literature was seen as a (mimetic) reflection of the historical world in which it was produced. Further, history was viewed as stable, linear, and recoverable--a narrative of fact. In contrast, New Historicism views history skeptically (historical narrative is inherently subjective), but also more broadly; history includes all of the cultural, social, political, anthropological discourses at work in any given age, and these various "texts" are unranked - any text may yield information valuable in understanding a particular milieu. Rather than forming a backdrop, the many discourses at work at any given time affect both an author and his/her text; both are inescapably part of a social construct. Stephen Greenblattwas an early important figure, and Michel Foucault's (fou-KOH) intertextual methods focusing especially on issues such as power and knowledge proved very influential. Other major figures include Clifford Geertz, Louis Montrose, Catherine Gallagher, Jonathan Dollimore, and Jerome McCann" (Siegel).
  

From Michael Delahoyde:

• "New Historicism seeks to find meaning in a text by considering the work within the framework of the prevailing ideas and assumptions of its historical era. New Historicists concern themselves with the political function of literature and with the concept of power, the intricate means by which cultures produce and reproduce themselves. These critics focus on revealing the historically specific model of truth and authority (not a "truth" but a "cultural construct") reflected in a given work.
  
• In other words, history here is not a mere chronicle of facts and events, but rather a complex description of human reality and evolution of preconceived notions. Literary works may or may not tell us about various factual aspects of the world from which they emerge, but they will tell us about prevailing ways of thinking at the time: ideas of social organization, prejudices, taboos, etc. They raise questions of interest to anthropologists and sociologists.
  
• New Historicism is more "sociohistorical" than it is a delving into factoids: concerned with ideological products or cultural constructs which are formations of any era. (It's not just where would Keats have seen a Grecian urn in England, but from where he may have absorbed the definitions of art and beauty.)
  
• So, New Historicists, insisting that ideology manifests itself in literary productions and discourse, interest themselves in the interpretive constructions which the members of a society or culture apply to their experience" (Delahoyde).
  

Major Theorists:

• Stephen Greenblatt (1943-)
• Clifford Geertz (1926-2006)
• Catherine Gallagher (1945-)
  
• Jonathan Dollimore (1948-)
• Jerome McGann (1937-)
• Michel Foucault (1926-1984)

Relevant Works:

• The Foucault Reader (1984)
• Practicing New Historicism (2000)
• The Beauty of Inflections: Literary Investigations in the Historical Method and Theory (1985)
• Redrawing the Boundaries: The Transformation of English and American Literary Studies (1992)
• The New Historicism (1989)
• Toward a New Historicism (1972)
• The New Cultural History (1989)

Overview:

From Michael Delahoyde:

• "Feminist literary criticism...critiques patriarchal language and literature by exposing how these reflect masculine ideology. It examines gender politics in works and traces the subtle construction of masculinity and femininity, and their relative status, positionings, and marginalizations within works. Beyond making us aware of the marginalizing uses of traditional language (the presumptuousness of the pronoun "he," or occupational words such as "mailman") feminists focused on language have noticed a stylistic difference in women's writing: women tend to use reflexive constructions more than men (e.g., "She found herself crying"). They have noticed that women and men tend to communicate differently: men directed towards solutions, women towards connecting.
• Feminist criticism concern itself with stereotypical representations of genders. It also may trace the history of relatively unknown or undervalued women writers, potentially earning them their rightful place within the literary canon, and helps create a climate in which women's creativity may be fully realized and appreciated.
• One will frequently hear the term 'patriarchy' used among feminist critics, referring to traditional male-dominated society. 'Marginalization' refers to being forced to the outskirts of what is considered socially and politically significant; the female voice was traditionally marginalized, or discounted altogether" (Delahoyde).

Major Theorists:

• Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)
• Betty Friedan (1921-2006)
• Kate Millet (1934-)
• Teresa de Lauretis (1938-)
• Annette Kolodny (1941-)
• Judith Fetterly (1938-)
• Elaine Showalter (1941-)
• Sandra Gilbert (1936-)
• Susan Gubar (1944-)

Relevant Works:

• The Feminine Mystique (1963)
• The Second Sex (1949)
• Sexual Politics (1970)
• Alice Doesn't: Feminism, Semiotics, Cinemas (1984)
• The Resisting Reader (1978)
• A Literature of Their Own (1977)
• The Madwoman in the Attic (1979)

"Critical Theory." Michael Delahoye. Retrieved from: http://public.wsu.edu/~delahoyd/lit.crit.html

Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press: New York, 1997. Print.

Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 2008. Print.

"Glossary of Literary Terms." Greig E. Henderson and Christopher Brown,

University of Toronto. Retrieved from http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/glossary/headerindex.html

"Introduction to Modern Literary Theory." Kristi Siegel. Retrieved from http://www.kristisiegel.com/theory.htm

"Literary Resources - Theory." Jack Lynch. Retrieved from
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/%7Ejlynch/Lit/theory.html

"Material on Theory." Jack Lye. Retrieved from https://brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/