Heartland AEA Literacy Newsletter

The Simple View of Writing suggests that writing is represented by an integrated
array of knowledge and skills used during writing tasks within one’s limited working memory
capacity. This array of knowledge and skills includes transcription (spelling, handwriting, and
keyboarding), text generation, or translation (writing formulated ideas on paper at the word,
sentence, and discourse levels). It also includes skills necessary to focus attention, remember
instructions, juggle multiple tasks that are initially supported by others, and to coordinate
transcription and text generation (e.g., conscious control of attention, concentration, efforts).
Transcription skills and knowledge, in particular, are foundational to writing development
and performance, as they exert a strong influence over the success of translation processes
in writing tasks (at least those that do not rely on dictation) due to limited cognitive capacity.
Thus, unless and until transcription is automatized, written expression is likely to be more

limited in length and quality.

“Writing, like reading, is defined from a developmental standpoint.It begins with the
acquisition of foundational skills and then systematically leads to the application of more
sophisticated techniques”, like translation skills, to effectively organize and express ideas
throughout the grades. Translation skills are grounded in oral language and its components,
namely (a) vocabulary and semantics—language content, (b) grammar, morphology (the
building blocks of meaning are including roots, prefixes, and suffixes) and syntax (the building
blocks of sentences such as various phrasal and clausal structures)—language form, and (c)
pragmatics (applying culturally-bound rules for using language effectively in diverse social
contexts)—language use. At no time in the writing learning progression would an instructor
focus on one part of the equation to the exclusion of the other part.

Figure 4 outlines a learning progression for teaching writing. It includes a hierarchy of easy

to complex transcription and translation skills necessary to be an accomplished writer.
Each of the component skills for writing foundations and composition are represented by a
shaded bar that is placed within a specific grade-level band. Each bar represents an evidence-based estimate for when these skills should be mastered by typical writers. Some of the
component skills include a thin line spanning through 12th grade, which represents on-going
use, refinement, and generalization of the skills. The same two caveats provided for the
reading progression apply to the writing progression as well. Each of the component skills
listed within green bars can and should be further operationally defined and presented in
a more in-depth instructional scope and sequence. For example, teaching sentences begins
by teaching students what constitutes a complete sentence (e.g., subjects and predicates are
generally required to express a complete thought) and where the boundaries exist between
complete and incomplete sentences (defining and recognizing sentence fragments, clauses,
and phrases). Sentence instruction would progress by teaching students the different types
of sentences. Additionally, students who would benefit from small group or individualized
intensive instruction to learn how to write likely still require formal instruction in skills

below their current grade-level placement.

St. Martin, K., Vaughn, S., Troia, G., Fien, & H., Coyne, M. (2020). Intensifying literacy instruction: Essential practices. Lansing, MI: MiMTSS Technical Assistance Center, Michigan Department of Education.

A solid body of research supports the importance of intentionally teaching writing and utilizing evidence-based instruction techniques to help young children build foundational writing skills that facilitate literacy learning. Dr. Lucy Hart Paulson, a literacy specialist, author, and speech-language pathologist, presents a broad-based perspective blending areas of language and literacy together resulting in effective, appropriate, and engaging language- based literacy instruction and intervention for all children. Lucy explains the three critical foundational skills needed for developing writing skills in young learners: transcription skills, composition skills, and executive function skills.

Transcription Skills

The ability to transcribe ideas into written words includes both handwriting and spelling. Handwriting triggers brain activity to help students make letter sound connections. Letter writing develops the pathways in the brain, as students make the strokes of the letters, and rehearse the sound of that letter, which essentially trains their brains to recognize the letter.. The process of writing helps students see the differences between all those letters that look similar, which also increases reading fluency and writing fluency. There is no better way to develop writing coordination than letting students write. Explicit spelling instruction is linked to stronger phonics and phonemic awareness when taught using phoneme grapheme mapping strategies. Orthographic mapping is the process where children learn to recognize each letter of the alphabet and how each letter represents one sound. Phoneme grapheme mapping is a visual way to represent the relationship between phonemes (sounds) and their graphemes (letters). Students connect the sound they hear with the letter or letters that represent that sound. When children are learning to read, they first start by sounding out each individual sound within a word. Over time, they begin to recognize patterns in what they are reading because certain sounds appear over and over again in words. They will eventually be able to read these patterns quickly without sounding them out every time. Encoding and decoding are reciprocal and go hand in hand, so students need to read and write newly learned patterns in words, phrases and sentences. Effective writing instruction includes about 30 minutes of writing instruction per day, letter formation using consistent language, phoneme grapheme mapping strategies, lined paper with a midline for spatial reference, practice writing decodable words as they learn to read the words, using the correct grip, and no erasing mistakes, simply cross out and rewrite the correct word.

Composition Skills

Composition skills begin with oral language through listening and speaking skills. Students need to have knowledge of a topic before they can write about it, and providing opportunities to discuss the topic allows them to generate ideas and rehearse before they transcribe those ideas. Sentence writing instruction is the foundation of composition. The progression of skills begins with oral language development in asking and answering questions with complete simple sentences, and increasing difficulty by using compound and complex sentences. Students can practice expanding sentences by thinking about the question words: who, what where, when and why, then understanding how conjunctions are used in sentences. State standards can guide writing expectations.

Executive Skills

Executive function skills, including the ability to initiate, break down, and follow through on multi-step tasks, are critical in attaining academic success. Writing may seem like an overwhelming task to some students, so explicit instruction in writing breaks down the task of writing into manageable parts. Explicit instructional cueing helps to develop self-regulation leading to other executive functioning skills. For example, some students may need to learn how to start and persist through the task of writing and to have a goal in mind.

Here are some additional resources for writing instruction:

Best Practices in Writing Instruction, 3rd Edition, edited by Steven Graham, Charles MacArthur and Michael Hebert.

The Writing Revolution: A Guide to Advancing Thinking Through Writing in All Subjects and Grades by Judith Hochman and Natalie Wexler

Not So Simple View of Writing webinar by Amy Siracusano

While decoding instruction tends to be reduced in the upper elementary grades, text is becoming more complex and the number of multisyllabic words that students encounter increase dramatically in third grade and beyond. Students who experience reading challenges often lack a systematic approach for decoding these words.

Word Connections is a supplemental reading intervention program. It includes 40 lessons (40 min each), divided into four units of instruction. Word Connections was developed for students in third grade and above who continue to experience challenges with word reading even though they have developed foundational decoding skills. The lessons focus on promoting automaticity with reading “big words.” This approach to multisyllabic word reading integrates multiple opportunities for students to manipulate and read words, rather than focusing on rule-based instruction. The Word Connections program includes seven instructional activities:

• Warm-Up: Students practice prerequisite skills. Each lesson, the teacher introduces cards with different target vowel patterns. Students read these vowel patterns in isolation and then within nonsense words.

• Affix Bank: Students are explicitly taught high frequency prefixes and suffixes. Each lesson, the teacher introduces new affixes. They read affix, provide a sample word, define, and then support students as the write on their Affix Bank chart.

• Word Play: Games focused on assembling or blending word parts. The teacher introduces the lesson’s five Spotlight Words, which are used to combine with affix cards. To increase engagement, five different word-building games are used across the program.

• Beat the Clock: Students read words by breaking apart or segmenting into parts. Students are given a new list with 40 multisyllabic words each lesson and the teacher supports them as they circle and read affixes, choral read affixes, and choral read words. Each student completes two timed readings, trying to “beat the clock” the second time.

• Write Word: Students engage in spelling practice using learned affixes. The teacher provides an affix to the group and students write words with 2-3 syllables (including nonsense words). Students share words and teacher provides corrective feedback, as needed.

• Speedy Read: Students are given a new word list each lesson. They complete a group reading of the word list and then each student reads for 30 sec. They log the number of words read in 30 sec on their Speedy Read chart.

• Text Reading: Fluency practice is transitioned from word-level to text-level. We begin with sentence reading, maze sentences that require students to select the correct affix for the base word, and cloze sentences that require students to insert missing affix to complete the word. Unit 3 and 4 focus on reading passages (expository text) with multisyllabic words added.

Download the Instructional Scope & Sequence for a listing of components and activity details across the 40 lessons. Download Word Connections Teacher Manual and Student Materials here.

In 2022, two collaborative groups of educators formed to create Syntax and Morphology resources. These resources are available for free to promote a culture of sharing and collaboration amongst schools. These lessons are a bank of explicit instruction Power Point lessons; these lessons can be edited and adapted to reflect the topics & curriculum content taught in your classroom. In addition to the lessons there are links to free professional development to deepen educators understanding of syntax and morphology and the instructional impact on student's reading and writing skills. These lessons represent the Language standards for K-6 grade.

The Syntax Project draws upon strategies from both The Writing Revolution (Hochman & Wexler, 2017) and Writing Matters: Developing Sentence Skills in Students of All Ages (Van Cleave, 2012). We highly encourage teachers/schools to purchase these resources to make the most out of the lessons.

This is a suggested sequence of lessons only. Once a lesson objective has been taught, the skill/concept needs to be revised regularly and embedded into curriculum content. Sentence-level writing is best taught in the context of student writing, and curriculum content drives the rigor of the writing activities.

All lessons are in PowerPoint format so they can be edited and expanded upon. We find the best opportunity to embed the skill/concept into curriculum content is during the ‘You Do’ phase of a lesson.Depending on the skill & conceptual knowledge of your students, you may wish to use lessons from earlier grades.

The Morphology Project lessons can be used in conjunction with a spelling program already being implemented to explicitly teach morphology or can be used as a stand-alone resource to explicitly teach morphology for vocabulary and spelling.

To get started with the morphology lessons, here is a handout that provides great information on how to get started and links to professional learning supports.

The Morphology Project

Introduction to the Teaching Secondary Students to Write Effectively Practice Guide
Improving students’ writing skills helps them succeed inside and outside the classroom.
Effective writing is a vital component of students’ literacy achievement, and writing is a
critical communication tool for students to convey thoughts and opinions, describe ideas and

events, and analyze information. Indeed, writing is a life-long skill that plays a key role in post-secondary success across academic and vocational disciplines. The nature of writing and writing instruction is changing. Technology, such as word processing and other forms of electronic communication, plays an increasingly important role in how students learn and practice writing in and out of the classroom. In addition, best practices in writing instruction have shifted to include integrated interventions that involve many complementary instructional practices. This practice guide presents three evidence-based recommendations for helping students in grades 6–12 develop effective writing skills. Each recommendation provides teachers with specific, actionable guidance for implementing practices in their classrooms. The guide also provides a description of the evidence supporting each recommendation, examples to use in class, and the panel’s advice on how to overcome potential implementation obstacles. This practice guide was developed in conjunction with an expert panel, combining the panel’s expertise with the findings of existing rigorous research. Throughout the guide, statements supported by evidence are denoted with references.

The three recommendations are:

Recommendation 1. Explicitly teach appropriate writing strategies using a Model-Practice-
Reflect instructional cycle.

Recommendation 1a. Explicitly teach appropriate writing strategies.
1. Explicitly teach strategies for planning and goal setting, drafting, evaluating,
revising, and editing.
2. Instruct students on how to choose and apply strategies appropriate for the audience and purpose.

Recommendation 1b. Use a Model-Practice-Reflect instructional cycle to teachwriting strategies.
1. Model strategies for students.
2. Provide students with opportunities to apply and practice modeled strategies.
3. Engage students in evaluating and reflecting upon their own and peers’
writing and use of modeled strategies.

Recommendation 2. Integrate writing and reading to emphasize key writing features.
1. Teach students to understand that both writers and readers use similar strategies,
knowledge, and skills to create meaning.
2. Use a variety of written exemplars to highlight the key features of texts.

Recommendation 3. Use assessments of student writing to inform instruction and
feedback.
1. Assess students’ strengths and areas for improvement before teaching a new strategy
or skill.
2. Analyze student writing to tailor instruction and target feedback.
3. Regularly monitor students’ progress whileteaching writing strategies and skills.